Priyal Sarvaiya
❇️ CLASS ASSIGNMENT ❇️
The Rasa theory of Bharata
✴️ Introduction :-
1 ) Theory of Rasa :-
The theory of Rasa-Bhava establishes a relationship between the performer and the spectator. The model spectator is a Sahrdaya, someone ‘who empathizes with the author.’ Since the success of a performance is measured by whether or not the audience has a specific experience (rasa), the spectator becomes a vital participant in the play.
Bharata calls human soul as Bhava-Jagat (the world of emotions). Bharata and later authors explain how the Art universalizes emotions making them an instrument of appeal to the spectators. They say that the actor acts as bearer, media and connector of emotions of the character. By conveying emotions the actor step by step opens inner Bhava-Jagat of the character, creates special emotional atmosphere, which can be felt and relished. The actor introduces and involves the spectators into this emotional atmosphere. Thus, emotions of the character are spread through the actor to spectators, who share them collectively, as a group, by relishing the Rasa. Thus emotions are embodied and translated from one person to many.
Bharata devotes the sixth chapter of his classical work Natya Shastra, to an in depth analysis of the concept of Rasa. It is in this chapter that we find the famous ‘Rasa Sutra.’ The awareness of the emotions has to be elicited in the minds of the spectator for them to relish it. The Rasa Sutra summarizes the factors in art construction that leads to relishing of the Rasa. Bharata very emphatically states in the Rasadhyaya of Natyashastra that “na hi Rasad rite kaschid arthah pravartate“ “no meaningful idea is conveyed if the “Rasa” is not evoked.The very core of the Bharata’s Natya theory is the creation of “Rasa“.
Every dramatic presentation is aimed at evoking in the minds of the audience a particular kind of aesthetic experience, which is described as “Rasa”.
The concept of “Rasa” is the most important and significant contribution of the Indian mind to aesthetics.The study of aesthetics deals with the realization of beauty in art, its relish or enjoyment, and the awareness of joy that accompanies an experience of beauty.Rasa has no equivalent in word or concept in any other language.
The closest explanation can be ‘aesthetic relish‘.
Panini mentions Natasutras of Silalin and Krishasva prior to Bharata’s Natyashastra, yet, it is only Bharatamuni who seems to have given a scientific analysis and codification of the concept of Rasa.
Bharata says that Natya is the imitation of life (lokanukruti) wherein the various human emotions have to be dramatically glorified (bhavanukirtanam) so that the spectator is able to flavour the portrayed pleasure and pain (lokasya sukhaduhkha) as Natyarasa.This Rasa experience will entertain and enlighten the spectator who becomes the ‘Rasika‘.
➡️What is Rasa?
The word Rasa is derived from the root ‘rasah‘ meaning sap or juice, taste, flavour, or relish.The extract of a fruit is referred to as ‘rasa,’ which itself is the essence of it, the ultimate flavour of it.
2 ) Rasa Sutra of Bharata :-
Bharata succinctly encapsulates the theory of Rasa in his most famous formula-like Rasa sutra thus: “ Vibhava-anubhava-vyabhichari-samyogad rasa nishpattih .” The aesthetic relish (the supreme delight which is called rasa) is produced (rasanishpattih) by a combination of the determinants (vibhava), consequents (anubhava), and transitory states or fleeting emotions (vyabhicharibhava). He explains Rasa as the essence derived from the various ingredients. He gives the parallel of the extract, Rasa, got from various condiments, having different tastes, when combined becomes delectable to taste. Hence, that which can be tasted or flavored (aasvaadya) relishes good food, can be termed as Rasa.
3 ) Natya Rasa :-
This aesthetic relish, which is possible only through mental perception, is termed as ‘natyarasa’. Even the terms vibhava, anubhava, and vyabhicharibhava refer only to stage representations, not to realities of life. It naturally follows that what they produce should only be ‘Natya Rasa’ (sentiments pertaining to the dramatic spectacle). One enjoys experiencing the emotions with the artistes, and sometimes even visibly expresses it by shedding tears or laughing spontaneously. But both the artiste and the spectator are well aware that neither of them is going through it in reality. This enjoyment is ‘Natya Rasa’.
4 ) Rasa and Bhava :-
The 6th and 7th chapters of the Natyashastra, known as the Rasadhyaya and Bhavaadhyaya respectively, together bring out the concept of the Bhava-Rasa theory of Bharata, and have hence become the bedrock for all deliberations on aesthetics, including the most brilliant contribution of Abhinavagupta, whose Abhinavabharati remains till date the best commentary on the Natyashastra.
According to Bharata, the playwright experiences a certain emotion (bhava). The director of the play should properly understand the idea and bhava-s of the character and convey his knowledge and understanding to the actors. The actors perform their parts using their own vision and experience, but they should follow the main idea and key bhavas emphasized by the director, Sutradhara.
The term bhava means both existence and a mental state, and in aesthetic contexts it has been variously translated as feelings, psychological states, and emotions. In the context of the drama, bhavas are the emotions represented in the performance.
“Bhaava” is derived from the root ‘bhu’-bhavati, that is, ‘to become’, ‘to come into existence’. Bharata gives a causal quality to Bhava, saying ‘bhavayanti iti bhava’, that is, a thing or mental state that brings its awareness or makes one conscious of it, which pervades one like a particular smell.
Bhava is that which becomes rasa. In Natya Shastra it is said, that bhavas by themselves carry no meaning in the absence of Rasa: “Nahi rasadyate kashid_apyarthah pravattate.” Forms and manifestations of bhavas are defined by the rasa. It is therefore said, Rasa is the essence of art conveyed.
Bharata says that which can be relished – like the taste of food – is rasa:
“Rasyate anena iti rasaha (asvadayatva).”
Rasa is the emotional response the bhavas inspire in the spectator (the Rasika or Sahrudaya). Rasa is thus an aesthetically transformed emotional state experienced by the spectator. Rasa is accompanied by feelings of pleasure and enjoyment. Such emotions tunes perception of the spectators, they create atmosphere of empathy, make people more sensitive, help to open mind and heart to understand the idea and message of the play.
Rasa is associated with palate, it is delight afforded by all forms of art; and the pleasure that people derive from their art experience. It is literally the activity of savoring an emotion in its full flavor. The term might also be taken to mean the essence of human feelings.
Rasa is sensuous, proximate, experiential. Rasa is aromatic. Rasa fills space, joining the outside to the inside. What was outside is transformed into what is inside.
5 ) Sthaayi Bhaava :-
According to Bharata ,there are three types of Bhaava, namely, Sthayi ( Pervading stable emotions)(eight types), Vyabhichari (thirty three), and Satvika (eight), totaling to forty-nine.
The Natya Shastra thus goes into great detail about the bhavas, which are broken down into three categories. Bharata mentions eight “Durable,” “Permanent,” or “Constant” emotional conditions called Sthayi bhavas:
These emotional states are inherent to humans. They are basic as they are inborn, understandable without explanation. They also are characterized by intensity, as they dominate and direct behavior. On the stage Sthayi bhavas are represented by certain Anubhavas, explained in Natya Shastra .
Eight Sthayi bhavas They are ,
1. Rati (Pleasure) (love), – Smiling face, sweet words, contraction of eye-brows, sidelong glances and the like.
2. Hasa (Joy) – Smile and the like, i.e., laugher, excessive laugher.
3. Shoka (Sorrow) (grief)- Shedding tears, lamentation, bewailing, change of color, loss of voice, looseness of limbs, falling on the ground, crying, deep breathing, paralysis, insanity, death and the like.
4. Krodha (Malice) – Extended nostrils, unturned eyes, bitten lips, throbbing cheeks and the like.
o against enemies – knitting of the eye-brows, fierce look, bitten lips, hands clasping each other, touching one’s own shoulder and breast.
o when controlled by superiors – slightly downcast eyes, wiping off slight perspiration and not expressing any violent movement.
o against beloved woman – very slight movement of the body, shedding tears, knitting eyebrows, sidelong glances and throbbing lips.
o against one’s servants – threat, rebuke, dilating eyes and casting contemptuous looks of various kinds.
o artificial – betraying signs of effort.
5. Utsaha (Courage) (heroism)- steadiness, munificence, boldness of undertaking and the like.
6. Bhaya (Fear) – trembling of the hands and feet, palpitation of the heart, paralysis, dryness of the mouth, licking lips, perspiration, tremor, apprehension of danger, seeking for safety, running away, loud crying and the like.
7. Jugupsa (Disgust) – contracting all the limbs, spitting, narrowing down of the mouth, heartache and the like.
8. Vismaya (Surprise) – wide opening the eyes, looking without winking of the eyes and movement of the eye-brows, horripilation, moving the head to and fro, the cry of ‘well done’ and the like.
6 ) Vibhava and Anubhava :-
Actions and feelings are evoked in connection with certain surrounding objects and circumstances, called Vibhava-s. Different mental and emotional states manifest themselves and become visible through universal physiological reactions called Anubhava-s.
Thus Bhava, the emotion felt by the character, results from a “Determinant” (vibhava), or determining circumstance, such as the time of year, the presence of loved ones, the decor or environment, and so on. The vibhava affects the character so that he feels sorrow, terror, anger, or some such emotion (bhava).
The “Consequent” (anubhava) of a particular bhava is a specific behavior exhibited by the actor as he portrays the character such as weeping, fainting, blushing, or the like. The anubhava, if properly executed, will cause the audience to feel a specific rasa corresponding to the bhava felt by the actor:
VIBHAVA—causes—>BHAVA—causes—>ANUBHAVA—>RASA Vibhaava
Vibhaava (determinant) which is the cause (karana),which is of two types: Alambana Vibhaava and Uddipana Vibhaava. the main stimulating cause is termed as Alambana vibhaava (the determinant), and, the environmental factors that are additional causes in evoking an emotion termed as uddipana vibhaava (excitant).
# Anubhaava :-
Bharata mentions, “Anubhavyate anena vaksangatvabhinaya ite Anubhaava.” which means that the Anubhaava is something that is equipped with Vak (speech), Anga (physic), and Satva (from heart or having supreme quality). Anubhaava is the consequent physical reaction through action, word and facial expression that follows (anu), as the impact of the vibhaava.
7 ) Vyabhichari ( Sanchari) bhaava :-
The vyabhichari bhaava-s (also known as sanchari bhaava ), are transitory, fleeting emotions. They are based on psychological states of the mind. Vyabhicari Bhaavas are thirty three in number.
They are :
Nirveda (Despondency)
Glani (Weakness)
Sanka (Suspicious)
Asuya (envy)
Mada (Inebriation)
Srama (exhaustion)
Alasya (lethargy)
Dainya (Depression)
Cinta (anxiety)
Moha (delusion)
Smrti (recollection)
Dhrti (fortitude)
Vrida (Bashfulness)
Capalata (in constancy)
Harsa (joy)
Avega (excitement)
Jadata (Stupefaction)
Garva (Arrogance)
Visada (Despair)
Autsukya (impatient curiosity)
Nidra (sleep)
Apasmara (Loss of memory)
Svapna (Dreaming)
Prabodha (Wakening)
Amarsa (indignation)
Avahittha (Dissimulation)
Ugrata (Cruelty)
Mati (self assurance)
Vyadhi (Sickness)
Unmada (madness)
Marana (death)
Trasa (fright)
Vitarka (deliberation)
However, of the Vyabhicari (Sancari) Bhaavas, which are mentioned in the Sastra, many do not seem to be emotions e.g. Srama (exhaustion), or Smrti (recollection).Moreover, they appear as a situation and a stage in life like, Marana (death).
8 ) Satvika bhaava :-
The Sattvika Bhaavas are eight in number. They are the physical manifestation of intense emotion.
They are :
Sthambha (Paralysis)
Sveda (Sweat)
Romanca (horripilation)
Svarabheda (change in the voice)
Vepathu (Trembling)
Vaivarnya(change of color)
Asru (Shedding tears)
Pralaya(Loss of Sense,fainting)
It is an amazing analysis of human emotions put in a nutshell !
Temperamental states are expressed on the stage using Sattvika abhinaya. In fact, all the gesticulation of mental states may be designated as the Sattvika abhinaya. But the prominence given to the gesticulation of the temperamental states is due to the peculiar mental effort which is necessary for their presentation. Bharata has thus given first the gesticulation of temperament for, without it the real purpose of the performance would be lost.
Sveda – taking up the fan, wiping off sweat, looking for breeze.
Stambha – being inactive, smileless, being like inert object, limbs drooping.
Kampa – quivering, throbbing and shivering, wiping the eyes of tears, shedding tear incessantly.
Asru – wiping the eyes full of tears, shedding tears incessantly.
Vaivarnya – alteration of the color of the face with effort by putting pressure on the artery.
Romanca – repeated thrills, hair standing on end, touching the body.
Svarabheda – broken and choked voice.
Pralaya – motionlessness, breathing gently (unnoticed), falling on the ground.
Bharata’s classification of Eight Rasas
➡️According to Bharata Sentiments are eight in number.
They are :
Love or amorous (sringra)
comic or humour (hasya)
pathos (karuna)
horror or furious (raudra)
heroism or valourous(Vira)
fear or horrific (bhayanaka)
disgust or repugnant (bibhatsa)
wonder (adbhuta)
Santa was added as the ninth at a later stage.
Just as in music a procession of notes in certain combinations reveals a characteristic melodic whole or raga, similarly it seems that the representation of bhaavas reveals Rasa as an aesthetic whole.
➡️Number of Rasas :
Since it is the Sthayi which attains to Rasa hood, the number of Rasas corresponds to the number of the Sthayis.The upcoming table shows the Sthayis and their corresponding Rasas.Bharata considers eight Rasas to which three more Rasas have been added by Udbhata. Thus, totally eleven Rasas are recognized
Chart showing Sthaayi bhaava and Rasa
1. The Erotic – Sringara – (1) in union – The Anubhava-s to be represented are clever movements of eyes and eye-brows, soft and delicate movements of limbs, sweet words, etc.; whereas those to be represented (2) in separation – are despondency, weakness, apprehension, envy, weariness, anxiety, yearning, sleep, dreaming, awakening, illness, insanity, epilepsy, inactivity (temporary) death and other conditions.
2. The Comic – Hasya – It is to be represented by throbbing of the lips, and the cheeks, opening of the eyes wide or contracting them, perspiration, color of the face and taking hold of the sides. Hasya is self-centered when a man laughs himself and it is centered in others when he makes others laugh. This two-fold division of Hasya relates to its infectious nature. In the verses of the Anubhavas of the six types of Hasya are given.
‘smita’ (gentle smile): slightly blown cheeks, elegant glances, teeth not visible;
‘hasita’ (smile): blooming eyes, face and cheeks, teeth slightly visible;
‘vihasita’ (gentle laugher) – laugher suitable to the occasion; slight sound and sweetness, face joyful, eyes and cheeks contracted;
‘upahasita’ (laugher of ridicule): the nose expanded, squinting eyes, shoulder and head bent;
‘apahasita’ (vulgar laugher) – laugher on unsuitable occasion: tears in eyes, shoulders and the head violently shaking;
‘atihasita’ (excessive laugher) – eyes expanded and tearful, loud and excessive sound, sides covered by hands.
Smita and hasita should be employed in the case of superior characters, vihasita and upahasita in the case of middling ones and apahasita and atihasita in the case of the inferior types.
3. The Pathetic – Karuna – This is to be represented by shedding tears, lamentation, dryness of the mouth, change of color, drooping limbs, being out of breath, loss of memory and the like.
4. The Furious – Roudra is to be represented by red eyes, knitting of eye-brows, defiance, biting of lips, throbbing of the cheeks, pressing one hand over the other and the like.
5. The Heroic – Veera – This is to be gesticulated by firmness, heroism, charity, diplomacy and the like.
6. The Terrible – Bhaya is to be represented by trembling of the hands, the feet and the eyes, horripilation, change of color and the loss of voice.
7. The Odious – Bibhatsa is to be gesticulated by contraction of all the limbs, narrowing down of the mouth and eyes, vomiting, spitting and (shaking the limbs in) disgust and the like.
8. The Marvelous – Adbhura – This is to be represented by wide opening eyes, looking with fixed gaze, horripilation, tears. Joy, perspiration, uttering words of approbation, making gifts, crying (incessantly) ‘ha, ha, ha’ waving the end of dhoti or sari and movement of fingers and the like.
Abhinavagupta interpreted rasa as a “stream of consciousness”. He then went on to expand the scope and content of the rasa spectrum by adding the ninth rasa: the Shantha rasa, the one of tranquility and peace. Abhinava explained that Shantha rasa underlies all the other mundane rasas as their common denominator. All the other rasas emanate from the Shantha rasa and resolve in to it. Shantha rasa is a state where the mind is at rest, in a state of tranquility.The other rasas are more transitory in character than is shanta rasa. The Shanta Rasa is the ultimate rasa the summum bonum.
10.Is Shantha the nineth Rasa ?
Natyasastra does not make it clear whether santa was recognised by Bharata as a sentiment. Bharata recognises, of course, shama (calmness) as the dominant emotion. Ascetic elements which have existed from very ancient times should have, under the influence of the Mahabharata, given rise to this sentiment. The claim of shanta to be treated as a sentiment cannot be denied on the ground that it has a limited appeal, as some critics hold, for the test for the value of a sentiment does not lie only in its appeal to large audience.
Shanta is the main sentiment in the Nagananda of Harsha who is said to have commented on the Natyasastra.
It is probable that this play started the inquiry of the claims of shanta to be treated as a sentiment.
Udbhata was the earliest writer to mention santa as a sentiment.
➡️‘Rasanubhaava
Several emotions follow one after the other, one replacing the other, strengthening the Sthayi bhaava at each stage, till finally the Sthayibhaava is established. And there is ‘Rasanubhaava‘. “The cultured and learned persons taste and relish the well established dominant mood (sthayibhaava) created by various bhaavas.
➡️Rasotpatti’
Bharata says that Bhaava and Rasa are mutually dependent. The performer or producer, be it an actor, dancer, singer, instrumentalist, or stage craftsmen, should be conscious of the Sthayi bhaava and the Rasa that they are striving to establish.This will help them realize their ‘Siddhi‘ ( experience of Rasa ) through ‘Rasotpatti.
# Summary :-
Bharata devotes the sixth chapter of his classical work Natya Shastra, to an in depth analysis of the concept of Rasa. It is in this chapter that we find the famous ‘Rasa Sutra.’ The very core of the Bharata’s Natya theory is the creation of “Rasa“.The concept of “Rasa” is the most important and significant contribution of the Indian mind to aesthetics. The word Rasa is derived from the root ‘rasah‘ meaning sap or juice, taste, flavour, or relish. Bharata succinctly encapsulates the theory of Rasa in his most famous formula-like Rasa sutra thus:
” Vibhava-anubhava-vyabhichari-samyogad rasa nishpattih .”
This aesthetic relish, which is possible only through mental perception, is termed as ‘natyarasa’. Bhava is that which becomes rasa. Rasa is the emotional response the bhavas inspire in the spectator (the Rasika or Sahrudaya). Rasa is thus an aesthetically transformed emotional state experienced by the spectator. According to Bharata ,there are three types of Bhaava, namely, Sthayi ( Pervading stable emotions)(eight types), Vyabhichari (thirty three), and Satvika (eight), totaling to forty-nine. Bharata considers eight Rasas to which three more Rasas have been added by Udbhata. Thus, totally eleven Rasas are recognized. Natyasastra does not make it clear whether santa was recognised by Bharata as a Several emotions follow one after the other, one replacing the other, strengthening the Sthayi bhaava at each stage, till finally the Sthayibhaava is established. And there is ‘Rasanubhaava‘.
❇️ HOME ASSIGNMENT ❇️
DHAVANI THEORY
✴️ Introduction :-
The Dhvani Theory is one of the most important contributions to Indian poetics. It was propounded by Ānandavardhana in the 9th century in his celebrated work “Dhvanyāloka.”
According to him, the soul of poetry is Dhvani (suggestion). The true beauty of poetry does not lie merely in the direct meaning of words (denotative meaning), but in the suggestive meaning that words carry beyond their surface sense.
✴️ ANANDAVARDHANA – DHVANI THEORY :-
The theory of Dhvani in the field of Indian Poetics is not only contribution to Sanskrit language, but also to the Universal rhetoric and aesthetics. The theme of aesthetics is been inherited through the Natya Shastra of Bharata and has been discussed by many scholars in their works and propounded different theories too.
➡️Along with the Rasa theory of Bharata we can name such six more theories which are been originated and propagated by different authors.
They are (1) Alankara school of Bamaha and Udbhata, (2) The Guna school of Dandi (though Dandi has not specially said, but his focus was more on Guna) (3) The Riti School of Vamana, (4) The Dhvani school of Ananda Vardhana (5) The Vakrokti school of Kuntaka and (6) The Auchitya school of Kshemendra.
Among them Ananda Vardhana occupied a very important place, whose views have been revealed the subtleties of great poems like Ramayana, Mahabharata and opened the minds of the authors on poetics.
Almost all the authors on poetics talked directly or indirectly about the both Sabda (sound) and Artha (meaning) constitute the Kavya Sarira – the body of poem. These words and their bmeaning should be free from blemishes (Dosas). When Dandi coined Padavali – the group of words by itself is taken as Sarira only and meaning which is accompanied with great merit adds embellishment to poetry; the quest for the soul of Kavya has started. If the inner meaning of the poetry is suggestive, figurative and expressive then it leads evoking the desired Rasa. Vamana is the first one to coin this inner meaning as Atma – the soul of poetry as Riti – the style, from then onwards Alankarikas started phrasing the term Atma in their works, Anandvardhana said Dhvani is the Atma of Kavya, Viswanatha said Rasa is the Atma, Kuntaka said Vakrokti, Kshemendra asserted that Auchitya is the life of Kavya.Thus there was vast divergence in the opinions of rhetoricians. They are divided Pre-Dhvani school (Pracina School) of Bamaha, Dandi, Vamana and others who focused on Alankara (figures of speech) as they are, linger around word and its meaning (Sabdalankaras and Arthalankaras). Anandavardhana with his theory of Dhvani pointed out that the reader should go beyond the meaning to capture the suggested or hinted meaning. This new school of thought (Navina School) has completely changed the trend of later rhetoricians. Sabda and Artha which one directly expressed (Vachya) but a Sahrudaya ( a Sympathetic critic or a responsive reader, man of taste) gets delighted by grasping the suggested essence –the Rasa through Vyangya.
✴️ Meaning of Dhvani :-
The word Dhvani literally means sound or resonance.
In poetics, it refers to the suggested sense of a poetic expression.
➡️Every poetic expression has:
Śabda (word) → the literal sound
Vācya (denotative meaning) → the direct sense
Vyangya (suggested meaning) → the hidden, implied or suggested sense
Dhvani is this suggested meaning (Vyangya), which goes beyond what is directly stated.
Example:
If a poet writes “The moon has risen”, the literal meaning is simple.
But in a romantic poem, this may suggest union of lovers or the awakening of love and beauty.
This deeper suggestion is Dhvani.
✴️ Types of Dhvani :-
Ānandavardhana classified Dhvani into three main types:
1. Vastu-dhvani (suggestion of an idea)
When words imply an idea beyond their direct sense.
Example: “He lives on the banks of the Ganga” → suggests a holy and pure life.
2. Alaṅkāra-dhvani (suggestion of a figure of speech)
When suggestion brings out an implied poetic figure (like simile, metaphor, alliteration).
Example: A poet might indirectly suggest a metaphor instead of stating it plainly.
3. Rasa-dhvani (suggestion of aesthetic emotion)
This is the highest form of Dhvani.
Here, words suggest a rasa (aesthetic flavour/emotion) such as Śṛṅgāra (love), Karuṇa (pathos), Vīra (heroic), Śānta (peace) etc.
Ānandavardhana declared that Rasa-dhvani is the essence of poetry, because poetry ultimately aims to evoke rasa in the reader or listene.
✴️Contents of the Text Dhvanyāloka :-
Ānandavardhana’s Dhvanyāloka (9th century) is the most influential Sanskrit treatise on literary theory. It systematically presents the Dhvani Theory, proving that the essence (soul) of poetry lies in suggestion (dhvani).
The text is divided into four Uddyotas (sections/chapters). Each Uddyota explains one aspect of Dhvani in detail.
➡️1). First Uddyota – Definition and Nature of Dhvani
Ānandavardhana begins by defining Dhvani as the suggested meaning (Vyaṅgya) that arises in poetry beyond the literal (Vācya) and indicative (Lakṣya) meanings.
He explains the difference between:
👉Vācya (denotative meaning): the direct sense of words.
👉Lakṣya (indicative meaning): when words point indirectly to something else.
👉Vyaṅgya (suggested meaning): the hidden, implied sense that gives depth to poetry.
He declares that Dhvani is the soul (ātman) of poetry. Without suggestion, poetry may be ornamented but remains lifeless.
The section uses examples from classical Sanskrit poetry to show how suggestion works.
➡️2 ) Second Uddyota – Classification of Dhvani :-
Here Ānandavardhana divides Dhvani into three main types:
👉Vastu-dhvani (suggestion of an idea):
Words suggest an additional idea beyond their literal meaning.
Example: “He dwells on the banks of the Ganga” → suggests purity or holiness of life.
👉Alaṅkāra-dhvani (suggestion of a poetic figure):
The suggested meaning lies in a hidden figure of speech (simile, metaphor, etc.).
Example: A poet may indirectly imply a metaphor without stating it openly.
Rasa-dhvani (suggestion of aesthetic emotion):
This is the highest and most important type.
Here, poetry indirectly suggests rasa (aesthetic emotion) such as love, sorrow, heroism, peace, etc.
Ānandavardhana declares that Rasa-dhvani is the supreme form, since the ultimate purpose of poetry is rasa-realisation.
3 ) Third Uddyota – The Functioning of Dhvani in Poetry :-
Explains how suggestion works at the level of:
👉Sound (śabda) → e.g., repetition of soft sounds may suggest tenderness.
👉Word (pada) → choice of words can imply emotions beyond their direct sense.
👉Meaning (artha) → deeper layers of meaning emerge beyond literal interpretation.
Shows the difference between poetry with dhvani and poetry without dhvani:
Poetry without suggestion is plain, ornamental but superficial.
Poetry with suggestion is living, powerful, and emotionally moving.
Establishes that suggestion gives poetry its charm, depth, and beauty.
4) Fourth Uddyota – Superiority of Dhvani over Other Poetic Theories
Addresses earlier theories like:
👉Alaṅkāra School (which emphasized figures of speech).
👉Guṇa School (which emphasized poetic qualities).
👉Rīti School (which emphasized style and diction).
Ānandavardhana refutes these theories by showing that while ornaments, qualities, and style are important, they are secondary to Dhvani.
He proves that without suggestion (dhvani), poetry cannot evoke rasa, which is its highest purpose.
Thus, Dhvani is declared to be the soul of poetry, superior to all other poetic elements.
➡️Summary of Contents :
👉First Uddyota: Definition of Dhvani, its nature, and importance.
👉Second Uddyota: Classification of Dhvani → Vastu-dhvani, Alaṅkāra-dhvani, Rasa-dhvani.
👉Third Uddyota: Functioning of Dhvani in sound, word, and meaning; difference between poetry with/without dhvani.
👉Fourth Uddyota: Superiority of Dhvani over other poetic theories; Rasa-dhvani as the highest form.
✴️ Importance of Dhvani Theory :-
Dhvani Theory shifted the focus of Indian poetics from word and meaning to suggestion and rasa.
It proved that poetry is not mere ornamentation of words, but a medium to suggest deeper emotions and experiences.
It emphasizes that a poet’s greatness lies not in direct description, but in the power of suggestion.
Later critics like Abhinavagupta further expanded this theory and gave it a central place in Sanskrit poetics.
✴️Conclusion
The Dhvani Theory establishes that:
The soul of poetry is Dhvani (suggestion).
Direct meaning (denotation) is secondary, while the suggested meaning (Vyangya) is primary.
Of all types, Rasa-dhvani is supreme, because the purpose of poetry is to evoke rasa in the audience.
❇️ ESSAY ❇️
VAKROKTI THEORY
✴️ Introduction :-
The Vakrokti theory is one of the important theories of Indian poetics. It was proposed by Kuntaka, a Sanskrit literary critic, in his work Vakroktijīvita (meaning "Life of Vakrokti").
➡️The term Vakrokti is made of two words:
Vakra = crooked, indirect, or unique
Ukti = expression, speech
Thus, Vakrokti literally means “oblique or figurative expression”. According to Kuntaka, poetry becomes beautiful and artistic not by plain and direct expression, but by its vakratā (indirectness, deviation from the ordinary way of speaking).
✴️ Definition :-
Vakrokti is a special mode of expression that deviates from the ordinary way of speech and produces poetic charm and beauty. Kuntaka says that the essence of poetry (kāvya) lies in this “crookedness” (vakratā), which distinguishes poetic language from ordinary communication.
✴️ Kuntaka and Vakroktijīvita :-
➡️About Kuntaka :-
Kuntaka was an eminent Sanskrit literary critic and theorist of the 10th century CE. He is best known as the author of Vakroktijīvita (literally, “The Life of Vakrokti”), a significant work in the field of Indian poetics (Alaṅkāra Śāstra). Unlike earlier critics, who mainly discussed figures of speech (alaṅkāras), rasa (aesthetic relish), or dhvani (suggestion), Kuntaka put forward a fresh and original perspective. For him, the real essence (jīvita, “life”) of poetry lies in Vakrokti — oblique, unique, or indirect expression.
➡️ Vakroktijīvita - Meaning of the Title :-
The title Vakroktijīvita itself is very significant.
Vakrokti = oblique, special, or crooked expression.
Jīvita = life, essence, or soul.
So, Vakroktijīvita means “Vakrokti is the very life of poetry.”
➡️Central Idea :-
Kuntaka argues that poetry is not ordinary speech.
What makes poetry artistic, delightful, and different from daily communication is Vakrokti (special expression).
Thus, Vakrokti is not just one poetic ornament but the very foundation and soul of all poetry.
➡️ Structure of the Work :-
Vakroktijīvita is divided into four chapters (unmeṣas), where Kuntaka explains his theory in detail:
👉First Unmeṣa – Introduction to Vakrokti
Defines Vakrokti as the soul of poetry.
Explains how it differs from ordinary language.
👉Second Unmeṣa – Six Levels of Vakratā (obliqueness)
Phonetic level (Varṇavinyāsa-vakratā)
Lexical level (Padapūrvārddha-vakratā)
Grammatical level (Padaparārddha-vakratā)
Sentential level (Vākyavakratā)
Contextual level (Prakaraṇavakratā)
Compositional level (Prabandhavakratā)
Each level shows how language deviates creatively from the ordinary to produce beauty.
👉Third Unmeṣa – Application of Vakrokti
Gives examples from Sanskrit poetry.
Shows how poets use Vakrokti at different levels to achieve artistic excellence.
👉Fourth Unmeṣa – Superiority of Vakrokti Theory
Argues that Vakrokti is more comprehensive than other theories (like Dhvani of Ānandavardhana).
States that Vakrokti covers the whole structure of poetry—from sound to meaning to composition.
Unique Features of Vakroktijīvita
Originality – Kuntaka gives a new, fresh way of defining poetry.
Universality – His six levels of Vakratā cover every possible aspect of poetic creation.
➡️Balance of Sound and Meaning – He shows that both sound (śabda) and sense (artha) get transformed in poetry through Vakrokti.
Aesthetic Value – Vakrokti produces rasa (aesthetic enjoyment) for the reader.
➡️ Kuntaka’s Contribution :-
Kuntaka made a significant contribution by highlighting the importance of expression in literature.
While Ānandavardhana focused on dhvani (suggestion) and Abhinavagupta on rasa (aesthetic experience), Kuntaka emphasized that the beauty of poetry lies in the poet’s style, creativity, and unique use of language.
✴️ History of Vakrokti Theory :-
➡️ Early Traces of Vakrokti :-
Before Kuntaka gave his systematic theory, the idea of “Vakrokti” was already present in earlier Sanskrit poetics.
👉Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra (c. 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE):
Bharata did not use the word Vakrokti directly, but his discussion of Alaṅkāras (figures of speech) and their role in giving beauty to language can be seen as an early foundation.
👉Bhamaha (7th century CE):
In his work Kāvyālaṅkāra, he mentioned Vakrokti as one of the figures of speech (alaṅkāras). For Bhamaha, Vakrokti was not the soul of poetry, but just a decorative device used by poets.
👉Dandin (7th–8th century CE):
In Kāvyādarśa, Dandin indirectly referred to poetic beauty as being created by special use of words, which comes close to the idea of Vakrokti.
👉Vāmana (8th century CE):
In Kāvyālaṅkārasūtravṛtti, Vāmana introduced the theory of Rīti (style) as the soul of poetry. His idea that the beauty of poetry lies in a special arrangement of words foreshadowed Kuntaka’s Vakrokti theory.
👉Ānandavardhana (9th century CE):
In Dhvanyāloka, Ānandavardhana presented the famous Dhvani theory (suggestion). He considered dhvani (implied meaning) as the soul of poetry. Though different from Vakrokti, this theory prepared the ground for later debates on what truly gives life to poetry.
Thus, before Kuntaka, Vakrokti was recognized but only as a minor concept or figure of speech, not as the central principle of poetry.
➡️ Kuntaka’s Innovation (10th century CE) :-
The real history of Vakrokti as a full-fledged theory begins with Kuntaka in his work Vakroktijīvita.
Kuntaka elevated Vakrokti from being a mere figure of speech to the very soul (jīvita) of poetry.
He argued that poetry is different from ordinary speech only because of its vakratā (indirectness, obliqueness, creative twist) at all levels of expression.
👉He systematized Vakrokti into six levels:
1)Phonetic (Varṇavinyāsa-vakratā)
2)Lexical (Padapūrvārddha-vakratā)
3)Grammatical (Padaparārddha-vakratā)
4)Sentential (Vākyavakratā)
5)Contextual (Prakaraṇavakratā)
6)Compositional (Prabandhavakratā)
This was a revolutionary step in Sanskrit poetics.
➡️ Later Influence :-
After Kuntaka, the Vakrokti theory did not gain the same popularity as Dhvani theory (Ānandavardhana) or Rasa theory (Abhinavagupta). However:
👉Scholars recognized its originality and comprehensiveness, since it covered every level of poetic expression.
👉Modern critics, both Indian and Western, appreciate Kuntaka’s contribution for emphasizing style and creativity over mere meaning.
👉In contemporary literary studies, Vakrokti is often compared with concepts like defamiliarization (by Russian Formalists), where literature makes language “strange” to create aesthetic beauty — very close to Kuntaka’s idea.
The history of Vakrokti shows its evolution:
In early poetics (Bhamaha, Dandin), it was just a figure of speech.
With Vāmana, it approached the idea of style. With Ānandavardhana, debates on the soul of poetry intensified. Finally, Kuntaka in the 10th century gave Vakrokti its full systematic form in Vakroktijīvita, declaring it the soul of poetry.
✴️ Kuntaka’s Idea of Sahitya :-
➡️ Who was Kuntaka?
Kuntaka (10th century CE) was a Sanskrit literary critic and the author of Vakroktijīvita. He proposed the Vakrokti Theory, which emphasized that the soul of poetry (sahitya) lies in vakratā — oblique, indirect, and artistic expression. Unlike other theorists, he gave special importance to the form of expression (vāk) rather than only meaning (artha).
➡️ What is Sahitya according to Kuntaka?
The word Sahitya in Sanskrit means literature or poetic composition.
According to Kuntaka, Sahitya is not ordinary communication.
The essence of Sahitya lies in Vakrokti (special expression) — that is, the poet’s ability to present even ordinary ideas in a new, unique, and aesthetically pleasing way.
👉 For Kuntaka:
Ordinary language = communicates information.
Sahitya (poetic language) = communicates aesthetic delight (rasa) through its creative and indirect expression.
Thus, the soul of Sahitya is Vakrokti, not just rasa (Abhinavagupta) or dhvani (Ānandavardhana).
➡️Six Levels of Vakratā in Sahitya
Kuntaka explained that Vakrokti operates at six different levels, and together they form the basis of Sahitya:
1). Phonetic Level (Varṇavinyāsa- vakratā):
Beauty through arrangement of sounds, rhyme, alliteration, or repetition.
Example: melodious use of syllables in poetry.
2) Lexical Level (Padapūrvārddha-vakratā):
Unique use of words, synonyms, or epithets.
Example: saying “moon-faced maiden” instead of simply “beautiful girl.”
3) Grammatical Level (Padaparārddha-vakratā):
Special use of case-endings, tense, or gender to create charm.
Sentential Level (Vākyavakratā):
Beauty in the structure of the sentence: inversion, rhetorical questions, or parallelism.
4) Contextual Level (Prakaraṇavakratā):
Effect created by the arrangement of ideas or episodes within a section of the poem/play.
5) Compositional Level (Prabandhavakratā):
The overall uniqueness of the entire work — its plot, arrangement, and artistic unity.
➡️ Kuntaka’s View of the Poet and Sahitya :-
👉A poet is not just someone who conveys meaning but one who transforms language creatively.
👉The greatness of Sahitya depends on the poet’s genius in style, imagination, and indirect expression.
👉Even common or simple subjects become beautiful when expressed through Vakrokti.
➡️Comparison with Other Theories
Bhamaha & Dandin: Saw Sahitya mainly as a collection of alaṅkāras (figures of speech).
👉Vāmana: Saw Rīti (style) as the soul of Sahitya.
👉Ānandavardhana: Saw Dhvani (suggestion) as the essence of Sahitya.
👉Abhinavagupta: Saw Rasa (aesthetic relish) as the soul of Sahitya.
👉Kuntaka: Saw Vakrokti (special expression) as the life of Sahitya.
Thus, Kuntaka gave an independent and original view, focusing on the style and expression that make Sahitya artistic.
Kuntaka’s idea of Sahitya is both unique and comprehensive. For him, Sahitya is not merely about what is said (artha), but how it is said (vāk). The true beauty of literature lies in its vakratā (obliqueness, creativity, uniqueness of expression). By presenting even simple thoughts in a new and striking manner, Sahitya becomes a source of aesthetic delight. Thus, Kuntaka established that the soul of Sahitya is Vakrokti, making his contribution a landmark in Indian poetics.
✴️ Conclusion :-
Kuntaka after Bhatrihari, is the most brilliant and rare talent who contributed enormously on
the discourse of language study and also on the discourse of poetic language or literary language.
In his understanding vakrokti is the vaidagdhyam bhangi or it is deviated or alternative to the speech act of the common people. With his study of poetic language he suggested the how of the birth of beauty. He is that genius in Indian poetics who extends himself from language study to
aesthetics to adaptation theory, to translation theory what we deal with now can be rooted in Kuntaka’s work also. The different types of Vakrokti that he classified are methods of criticism of literature also. It is actually literary discourse proposed by him. He suggested a complete
structure of literary study. But not only limited into that he was concerned about the reader’s response, though it is the major concern of all the Sanskrit rhetoricians.
